STATE

Should public officials carry out rules without exercising personal moral judgment?

Span 1784–1919
Works 6
Languages German, English, Russian
Status Draft question and agent-proposed arguments. Source checks are partial; historian review is pending.

Yes4

  • Den Privatgebrauch nenne ich denjenigen, den er in einem gewissen ihm anvertrauten bürgerlichen Posten, oder Amte, von seiner Vernunft machen darf. Nun ist zu manchen Geschäften, die in das Interesse des gemeinen Wesens laufen, ein gewisser Mechanism nothwendig, vermittelst dessen einige Glieder des gemeinen Wesens sich bloß passiv verhalten müssen, um durch eine künstliche Einhelligkeit von der Regierung zu öffentlichen Zwekken gerichtet, oder wenigstens von der Zerstörung dieser Zwekke abgehalten zu werden. Hier ist es nun freilich nicht erlaubt, zu räsonniren; sondern man muß gehorchen. So fern sich aber dieser Theil der Maschine zugleich als Glied eines ganzen gemeinen Wesens, ja sogar der Weltbürgergesellschaft ansieht, mithin in der Qualität eines Gelehrten, der sich an ein Publikum im eigentlichen Verstande durch Schriften wendet; kann er allerdings räsonniren, ohne daß dadurch die Geschäfte leiden, zu denen er zum Theile als passives Glied angesetzt ist. So würde es sehr verderblich sein, wenn ein Offizier, dem von seinen Oberen etwas anbefohlen wird, im Dienste über die Zwekmäßigkeit oder Nützlichkeit dieses Befehls laut vernünfteln wollte; er muß gehorchen. Es kann ihm aber billigermaßen nicht verwehrt werden, als Gelehrter, über die Fehler im Kriegesdienste Anmerkungen zu machen, und diese seinem Publikum zur Beurtheilung vorzulegen.

    By the private use I mean that which a person may make of his reason in a certain civil post or office entrusted to him. Now for many affairs that concern the interest of the commonwealth a certain mechanism is necessary, by means of which some members of the commonwealth must behave merely passively, so that through an artificial unanimity they may be directed by the government toward public ends, or at least kept from destroying those ends. Here it is certainly not permitted to argue; one must obey. But insofar as this part of the machine regards himself at the same time as a member of a whole commonwealth, indeed of the society of world citizens, and thus in the capacity of a scholar who addresses a public in the proper sense through writings, he can certainly argue without harming the affairs to which he is assigned in part as a passive member. Thus it would be very ruinous if an officer who is given an order by his superiors wanted, while on duty, to reason aloud about the expediency or usefulness of this order; he must obey. But he cannot fairly be forbidden, as a scholar, to make remarks on the errors in military service and to lay them before his public for judgment.

    machine translation

    SummaryIn the 'private' use of reason within an office, an officer, tax official or clergyman must obey and not argue; he may criticize freely only as a scholar addressing the public.

  • 296. Whether or no integrity of conduct, gentleness, and freedom from passion pass into social custom depends upon the nature of the direct ethical life and thought. These phases of character maintain the spiritual balance over against the merely mental acquisition of the so-called sciences, dealing with the objects of these spheres of government, against also the necessary practice of business, and the actual labour of mechanical and other trades. The greatness of the state is also a controlling element, by virtue of which the importance of family relations and other private ties is diminished, and revenge, hate, and the like passions become inoperative and powerless. In concern for the great interests of a large state, these subjective elements sink out of sight, and there is produced an habitual regard for universal interests and affairs.

    OCR corrected

    SummaryCivil servants are educated to a dispassionate, upright demeanor in which personal passions and ties give way to universal interests.

    §§294-296

  • Most important to be observed is the truth already so much and so fortunately insisted upon by our civil- service reformers ; namely, that administration lies outside the proper sphere of politics. Administrative questions are not political questions. Although politics sets the tasks for ad- ministration, it should not be suffered to manipulate its offices. This is distinction of high authority ; eminent German writ- ers insist upon it as of course. Bluntschli, 1 for instance, bids us separate administration alike from politics and from law. Poli- tics, he says, is state activity " in things great and universal," while "administration, on the other hand," is "the activity of the state in individual and small things. Politics is thus the special province of the statesman, administration of the techni- cal official."

    SummaryAdministration should be a separate science carried out by trained officials under political direction, kept apart from politics.

  • Der echte Beamte – das ist für die Beurteilung unseres früheren Regimes entscheidend – soll seinem eigentlichen Beruf nach nicht Politik treiben, sondern: „verwalten“, unparteiisch vor allem, – auch für die sogenannten „politischen“ Verwaltungsbeamten gilt das, offiziell wenigstens, soweit nicht die „Staatsräson“, d. h. die Lebensinteressen der herrschenden Ordnung, in Frage stehen. Sine ira et studio , „ohne Zorn und Eingenommenheit“ soll er seines Amtes walten. Er soll also gerade das nicht tun, was der Politiker, der Führer sowohl wie seine Gefolgschaft, immer und notwendig tun muß: kämpfen . Denn Parteinahme, Kampf, Leidenschaft – ira et studium – sind das Element des Politikers. Und vor allem: des politischen Führers . Dessen Handeln steht unter einem ganz anderen, gerade entgegengesetzten Prinzip der Verantwortung , als die des Beamten ist. Ehre des Beamten ist die Fähigkeit, wenn – trotz seiner Vorstellungen – die ihm vorgesetzte Behörde auf einem ihm falsch erscheinenden Befehl beharrt, ihn auf Verantwortung des Befehlenden gewissenhaft und genau so auszuführen, als ob er seiner eigenen Überzeugung entspräche: ohne diese im höchsten Sinn sittliche Disziplin und Selbstverleugnung zerfiele der ganze Apparat. Ehre des politischen Führers, also: des leitenden Staatsmannes, ist dagegen gerade die ausschließliche Eigen verantwortung für das, was er tut, die er nicht ablehnen oder abwälzen kann und darf.

    The genuine official (this is decisive for judging our former regime) should by his proper vocation not engage in politics but "administer", impartially above all; this holds, officially at least, even for the so-called "political" administrative officials, so far as "reason of state", that is, the vital interests of the ruling order, is not in question. Sine ira et studio, "without anger and partiality", he is to conduct his office. He is therefore not to do precisely what the politician, the leader as well as his following, always and necessarily must do: fight. For taking sides, struggle, passion (ira et studium) are the element of the politician, and above all of the political leader. His conduct stands under a quite different, precisely opposite principle of responsibility from that of the official. The honour of the official is his ability, when (despite his objections) the authority above him insists on an order that seems to him wrong, to carry it out on the responsibility of the one who gives the order, conscientiously and exactly as if it matched his own conviction: without this moral discipline and self-denial in the highest sense the whole apparatus would fall apart. The honour of the political leader, that is, of the leading statesman, is on the contrary precisely his exclusive personal responsibility for what he does, which he cannot and may not refuse or shift onto others.

    machine translation

    SummaryThe honor of the civil servant is to carry out a superior's order conscientiously as if it were his own conviction, even when he thinks it wrong; personal responsibility belongs to the political leader.

No2

  • The mass of men serve the State thus, not as men mainly, but as machines, with their bodies. They are the standing army, and the militia, jailers, constables, _posse comitatus_, &c. In most cases there is no free exercise whatever of the judgment or of the moral sense; but they put themselves on a level with wood and earth and stones; and wooden men can perhaps be manufactured that will serve the purpose as well. Such command no more respect than men of straw, or a lump of dirt. They have the same sort of worth only as horses and dogs. Yet such as these even are commonly esteemed good citizens. Others, as most legislators, politicians, lawyers, ministers, and office-holders, serve the state chiefly with their heads; and, as they rarely make any moral distinctions, they are as likely to serve the devil, without _intending_ it, as God. A very few, as heroes, patriots, martyrs, reformers in the great sense, and _men_, serve the State with their consciences also, and so necessarily resist it for the most part; and they are commonly treated by it as enemies.

    SummaryMost men serve the state 'not as men mainly, but as machines, with their bodies', as soldiers, jailers and constables, and so give up moral judgment; conscience must come first.

  • So many instigate, assist, or sanction the commission of every one of these actions that no one who has a hand in them feels himself morally responsible for it. It is the custom among assassins to oblige all the witnesses of a murder to strike the murdered victim, that the responsibility may be divided among as large a number of people as possible. The same principle in different forms is applied under the government organization in the perpetration of the crimes, without which no government organization could exist. Rulers always try to implicate as many citizens as possible in all the crimes committed in their support. Of late this tendency has been expressed in a very obvious manner by the obligation of all citizens to take part in legal processes as jurors, in the army as soldiers, in the local government, or legislative assembly, as electors or members. Just as in a wicker basket all the ends are so hidden away that it is hard to find them, in the state organization the responsibility for the crimes committed is so hidden away that men will commit the most atrocious acts without seeing their responsibility for them.

    SummaryThe state spreads each act of violence across many officials, each of whom says he only obeyed orders, so that no one feels responsible; every official must refuse.

    Chapter XII

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